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Ancient Mesopotamia: The Cradle of Civilization
An orientation to ancient Mesopotamia: the Tigris and Euphrates, irrigation farming, the main periods from Sumer to the Persian conquest, and why it matters.
Ancient history
Walk through the ancient world, one civilization at a time.
Plain guides to the cities, empires, laws and beliefs of ancient civilizations, from Sumer and Babylon to Egypt, Greece, Rome and beyond.
556 in-depth guides 83 topics Oct 2026 latest guide
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The Ancient Sumerian City of Uruk: A Hub of Civilization
Uruk, modern Warka in southern Iraq, grew into one of the largest early cities from about 3500 BCE. Its Eanna and Anu districts and long history explained.
Cracking the Code of Ancient Sumerian Writing
How cuneiform writing grew from clay accounting tokens into a wedge-shaped script, how scribes learned it, and how modern scholars learned to read it again.
Ancient Mesopotamian Mythology: The Creation of the Gods
An overview of Mesopotamian mythology: the main gods Anu, Enlil, Enki and Inanna, how divine families were born, and the theogony told in the Enuma Elish.
The Ancient City of Babylon: A Marvel of Ancient Mesopotamia
A history of Babylon from its Amorite kings and Hammurabi to Nebuchadnezzar II, Persian rule and Alexander, with its sieges, revivals and slow abandonment.
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Cradle of Civilization
Mesopotamia and its first cities, writing, law and myths.
Mesopotamia Overview The land between the rivers and how its civilization began. 5 guides Sumerian Cities Uruk, Eridu, Ur and Nippur, the first great cities. 7 guides Writing and Law Cuneiform and the earliest law codes. 6 guides Myth and Art Gods, creation stories, the Gilgamesh epic and Mesopotamian art. 11 guides Sumerian History The story of Sumer from early villages to the Ur III state and its rediscovery. 7 guides Sumerian Innovations Farming, mathematics, technology and legal practice in Sumer. 4 guides Ancient Crafts and Technology Metals, glass, cloth, concrete and the tools that built early civilizations. 8 guides Women and Children in the Ancient World Family life, education and the women who shaped ancient history. 8 guides Archaeology Methods and Dating The scientific tools used to date and reconstruct the ancient past. 8 guides
Babylon and Assyria
The great city and empires that dominated Mesopotamia.
The City of Babylon Architecture, learning, religion and legends of Babylon. 9 guides Babylonian Empire Government, omens, astronomy and the fall of Babylonia. 9 guides Assyria and Rivals Assyrian power and the Hittite and Kassite kingdoms. 12 guides Warfare and Weapons Chariots, phalanxes, sieges and the equipment of ancient armies. 8 guides
Persia and Asia
Persian and Arabian crossroads, then India, Central Asia and East Asia.
Persian and Arabian Crossroads Susa, Ctesiphon and the Sabaean incense kingdom. 5 guides Central Asian Kingdoms The Kushan Empire and the Tarim Basin mummies. 4 guides Petra and the Nabataeans The rock-cut capital of the Nabataeans in Jordan, its builders and its rediscovery. 9 guides Phoenician People and Seafaring The city-states of the Levant coast, their ships, trade, colonies and alphabet. 9 guides Chinese Thought and Arts Daoist ideas, balance, the five phases and the brush arts of early China. 5 guides Chinese Dynasties and Inventions Early Chinese dynasties, the Qin unification, its monuments and the inventions that followed. 5 guides The Silk Road The overland trade routes linking China, Central Asia and the west, and the people who travelled them. 6 guides Angkor and the Khmer The temples and royal city of Angkor in Cambodia and the Khmer builders behind them. 10 guides Mohenjo-Daro and Indus Cities The planned cities of the Indus Valley, led by Mohenjo-Daro. 5 guides Harappans and Vedic India The Harappan culture of the Indus plains and the Vedic traditions that came after. 10 guides Persepolis and Achaemenid Persia The Achaemenid Persian rulers and their ceremonial capital at Persepolis. 9 guides Qin and the Terracotta Army The First Emperor, his buried army and the walls of the north. 7 guides Imperial China The Han, Tang, Song, Ming and Qing dynasties. 5 guides Mongols and Steppe Peoples Mongols, Yuan, Timurids, Huns and Xiongnu on the steppe. 6 guides Caliphates and Ottomans The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates and the rise of the Ottomans. 4 guides Shambhala and Lost Cities The Shambhala legend and cities said to be lost to history. 7 guides Scythians of the Steppe Nomadic horse peoples north of the Black Sea and across the steppe. 5 guides Gobekli Tepe and Early Monuments Carved pillars and enclosures built before farming villages. 4 guides Trade, Money and Markets How coins, merchants, weights and sea routes tied the ancient world together. 8 guides Early Korea, Japan and Southeast Asia Early states and cultures on the eastern and southern edges of Asia. 8 guides
Egypt and Africa
Pharaonic Egypt, its monuments and beliefs, and the Nubian kingdoms to the south.
Pyramids and Giza The Giza pyramids, their builders, the Sphinx and the myths around them. 10 guides Egyptian Building and Writing Temple architecture and hieroglyphic script. 4 guides Afterlife and Burial Mummies, embalming, coffins, the Book of the Dead and Tutankhamun. 10 guides Science and Medicine Egyptian healing, astronomy and mathematics. 6 guides Nubia and Kush The Nile kingdoms of Kerma, Napata and Meroe south of Egypt. 9 guides Delta Cities and Ptolemies Tanis, sunken Thonis-Heraklion and the Ptolemaic dynasty. 8 guides African Kingdoms West African states such as the Ashanti and Nri. 10 guides Ships and Navigation Boats, harbours and the methods ancient sailors used to cross waters. 8 guides
Greece, Rome and Europe
The Greek world, Rome, the wider Mediterranean and the peoples of Europe.
Greek Democracy and Civic Life How Athens and other Greek states governed themselves and competed. 6 guides Greek Philosophy The schools and thinkers of ancient Greek philosophy. 10 guides Greek Art, Nature and Harmony Greek art and ideas about nature, proportion and balance. 6 guides Greek Theater and Tragedy Drama, tragedy and comedy in ancient Greece. 6 guides Greek Sanctuaries and Cities Famous sanctuaries and Greek-founded cities. 9 guides Anatolian Greek and Roman Cities The great cities of western Anatolia, from Ionian foundation to Roman rule. 7 guides Aegean Bronze Age Minoans, Mycenaeans and Troy before classical Greece. 9 guides Peoples on Greek Borders Neighbouring peoples of Anatolia and the Balkans. 7 guides Greek History and Overviews Broad surveys of Greek history from the city-states to the Athenian empire and the classical legacy. 6 guides Persian Wars and Ancient Battles The Persian invasions of Greece and other decisive battles from Marathon to Cannae. 5 guides Greek Myth and the Trojan War Gods, monsters, Homeric epic and the long debate over whether Troy fell as the poems say. 7 guides Lydians, Carians and Anatolia Western Anatolian peoples and steppe raiders who shaped the eastern Greek world. 5 guides Roman Conquest and Expansion How a city on the Tiber became the master of the Mediterranean through war and organisation. 6 guides Roman Power and Decline Ambition, corruption and the long fall of the western empire, with its Frankish aftermath. 4 guides Pompeii and Vesuvius The Roman town buried by the eruption of 79 CE and what it shows about daily life. 6 guides Roman Provincial Cities Antioch, Gerasa, Palmyra and Timgad, cities at the edges of Roman rule. 7 guides Tyre and Carthage Two great Phoenician cities, the mother city in Lebanon and its western colony in Tunisia. 6 guides Etruscan History and Origins The people of Etruria in central Italy, their cities, beliefs, origins and decline. 8 guides Etruscan Art and Craft Tomb paintings, black pottery and terracotta sculpture of ancient Etruria. 3 guides Lost Peoples and Places Lesser-known cultures and sites around the western Mediterranean and Europe. 8 guides Celtic Art and Craft Celtic style, knotwork, metalwork and illuminated books. 6 guides Celtic Peoples and Druids The Celtic tribes, the druids as Roman writers described them, and belief. 4 guides Picts of Scotland The people and kingdoms of early medieval and Roman-era northern Britain. 4 guides Atlantis in Plato The Atlantis story as Plato told it and how later readers used it. 3 guides Ancient Manuscripts and Scripts Undeciphered and famous texts: Voynich, Dead Sea Scrolls and Rongorongo. 3 guides Daily Life in Greece and Rome Food, homes, baths, festivals and travel in ordinary Greek and Roman lives. 8 guides Law and Justice in Antiquity Courts, codes, reformers and the rules that governed Greek, Roman and Egyptian life. 8 guides Ancient Medicine Healers, doctors and medical ideas from Mesopotamia to Rome. 8 guides
The Americas
Maya, Inca, Aztec and earlier peoples of North, Central and South America, from great cities to desert mysteries.
Maya Calendar and Script How the Maya counted time, wrote and understood the cosmos. 10 guides Maya Cities and History Maya city-states, their rise and collapse, and the Spanish conquest. 9 guides Inca Empire and Road Inca society, roads, timekeeping and the Spanish conquest. 8 guides Inca Cities Cuzco, Machu Picchu and other Inca stone cities. 3 guides Aztec Empire and Conquest The Aztec Triple Alliance, its religion and its fall. 4 guides Nazca and Andean Mysteries The Nazca Lines and the puzzles of the ancient Andes. 10 guides Early American Cultures Lesser known cultures of North, Central and South America. 7 guides Olmec and Isthmian Cultures The Olmec heartland and its Epi-Olmec successors on the Gulf coast of Mexico. 3 guides Maya Rulers, Religion and Life Maya kings, myths and everyday life, from dynastic politics to the underworld. 3 guides Inca Expansion and Resistance How the Inca empire grew, fought, fractured and held out against Spain. 4 guides Nazca Debates and Preservation Rival explanations for the Nazca Lines, fringe claims and efforts to protect the site. 3 guides Lost Cities of the Americas Legendary lost cities of South America, separating evidence from myth and hoax. 3 guides Easter Island and Rapa Nui The moai, the island people and the debate over what happened to them. 8 guides Polynesia and the Pacific Ancient voyagers, island chiefdoms and the settlement of Oceania. 8 guides